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Zener cards are cards used to conduct experiments for extrasensory perception (ESP), most often clairvoyance. Perceptual psychologist Karl Zener (1903–1964) designed the cards in the early 1930s for experiments conducted with his colleague, parapsychologist J. B. Rhine (1895–1980). ==Overview== The Zener cards were a deck made up of five simple symbols. The five different Zener cards are: a hollow circle (one curve), a Greek cross (two lines), three vertical wavy lines (or "waves"), a hollow square (four lines), and a hollow five-pointed star.〔Terence Hines. (2003). ''Pseudoscience and the Paranormal''. Prometheus Books. p. 115〕 There are 25 cards in a pack, five of each design.〔Matt Jarvis, Julia Russell. (2002). ''Key Ideas in Psychology''. Nelson Thornes Ltd. p. 117〕 In a test for ESP, the person conducting the test (the experimenter) picks up a card in a shuffled pack, observes the symbol on the card, and records the answer of the person being tested for extrasensory perception, who would guess which of the five designs is on the card in question. The experimenter continues until all the cards in the pack have been tested. Poor shuffling methods can make the order of cards in the deck easier to predict. The cards could have been marked and manipulated.〔John Sladek. (1974). ''The New Apocrypha: A Guide to Strange Sciences and Occult Beliefs''. Panther. p. 174 "It's astonishing that playing cards should have been chosen for ESP research at all. They are, after all, the instrument of stage magicians and second-dealing gamblers; they can be marked and manipulated in many traditional ways. At the best of times, card-shuffling is a poor way of getting a random distribution of symbols."〕 In his experiments, J. B. Rhine first shuffled the cards by hand but later decided to use a machine for shuffling.〔Massimo Pigliucci. (2010). ''Nonsense on Stilts: How to Tell Science from Bunk''. University of Chicago Press. pp. 80-82〕 Rhine's experiments with Zener cards were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues.〔Jonathan C. Smith. (2009). (''Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit'' ). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405181228. "Today, researchers discount the first decade of Rhine's work with Zener cards. Stimulus leakage or cheating could account for all his findings. Slight indentations on the backs of cards revealed the symbols embossed on card faces. Subjects could see and hear the experimenter, and note subtle but revealing facial expressions or changes in breathing."〕 Terence Hines has written: The methods the Rhines used to prevent subjects from gaining hints and clues as to the design on the cards were far from adequate. In many experiments, the cards were displayed face up, but hidden behind a small wooden shield. Several ways of obtaining information about the design on the card remain even in the presence of the shield. For instance, the subject may be able sometimes to see the design on the face-up card reflected in the agent’s glasses. Even if the agent isn’t wearing glasses it is possible to see the reflection in his cornea.〔Terence Hines. (2003). ''Pseudoscience and the Paranormal''. Prometheus Books. pp. 119-120〕 Once Rhine took precautions in response to criticisms of his methods, he was unable to find any high-scoring subjects.〔Milbourne Christopher. (1970). ''ESP, Seers & Psychics''. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. p. 28〕 Due to the methodological problems, parapsychologists no longer utilize card-guessing studies.〔James Alcock. (2011). (''Back from the Future: Parapsychology and the Bem Affair'' ). ''Skeptical Inquirer''. "Despite Rhine’s confidence that he had established the reality of extrasensory perception, he had not done so. Methodological problems with his experiments eventually came to light, and as a result parapsychologists no longer run card-guessing studies and rarely even refer to Rhine’s work."〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Zener cards」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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